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English grammar: 100 main rules
Елена Анатольевна Васильева
As soon as you started learning English you have to study basic grammar rules that help understand the language structure and as a result communicate effectively. In the reference guide 100 most common grammar rules are put together and explained in a clear form of tables with several examples to each rule. Referring to this grammar guide may be helpful for those students who have recently started learning English and still find grammar not simple to understand as well as for those advanced users who need just refresh their knowledge of English grammar or clarify some grammar points.
E. A. Vasilyeva
English grammar: 100 main rules
ebooks@prospekt.org
RULE 1. Proper and Common Nouns
RULE 2. Countable and Uncountable Nouns
RULE 3. Plural Form Nouns
RULE 4. Irregular Plural Form of Nouns
RULE 5. Gender of Nouns
RULE 6. Common and Possessive Cases of Nouns
RULE 7. Syntactic Functions of Nouns
RULE 8. Adjectives
RULE 9. Adjective Degrees of Comparison
Positive Degree of Adjectives
1. Description
abusystreet, acleverdog, adullday, anexpensivering, agoodattitude, a jealous man, animportantsignal, aweakaccent,youngpeople
Note
Qualitative adjectives can be modified by adverbs of degree.
adreadfullydull day,extremelyhot weather, afairlylarge message, ahugelyimportant signal, animmenselyfamous picture,incrediblyuseful advice, anintenselybusy street, alittle/a bitexpensive ring, arathergood attitude, areasonablyweak accent,quitean interesting list, aslightlysomber event, atoojealous husband, anunusuallyclever dog,veryyoung people
2. Comparison
1) Equality
as + adjective + as
The white kitten isas cute asthe grey one.
Playing games isas important asstudying.
2) Inferiority
not so+adjective (+ as)
His idea isnot so stupid.
The view didnotturn to beso splendid aswe had expected.
half as + adjective (+ as)
Jimmy ishalf as tall asJonny.
Our house ishalf as big asthe neighbours'.
3) Superiority
twice (three times) as + adjective (+ as)
The way wastwice as long asyesterday.
Olivia's typing speed isthree times as fastas Andrew's.
Comparative Degree of Adjectives
The comparative degree demonstrates the difference between two objects.
1) Superiority
– Most one- and two-syllable adjectives form the comparative degree by adding – er ending.
adjective + – er
clever – cleverer,dull – duller,large – larger,weak – weaker,young – younger
Apple juice issweeterthan orange juice.
These tickets arecheaperthan those ones.
Note
– Adjectives ending in – y change the – y into – i and add – er.
busy – busier,pretty – prettier,lazy – lazier, funny – funnier, juicy – juicier
Cf.: shy – shyer,sly – slyer,grey – greyer
– One-syllable adjectives with a short vowel followed by a consonant double this consonant and add – er.
big – bigger,hot – hotter,fat – fatter,thin – thinner
– Several two-syllable adjectives and all three- (and more) syllable adjectives form the comparative degree with more.
more + adjective
moreexpensive,morefamous,moreimportant,moreinteresting,moreprofitable,moresomber,moreuseful
The new hairdo makes Andrewmore handsome.
Time ismore valuablethan money.
2) Inferiority
less + adjective
lessbusy,lessclever,lesshot,lessexpensive,lessfamous,lessimportant,lessinteresting
This way isless easythan the way Andrew offers.
I preferless dangerousdriving.
Note
Use certain adverbs to enhance the meaning of comparative adjectives.
far/much/a lot
slightly/a little/a bit
Olivia isfar prettierthan her sister.
This will sounda bit morepolite.
Note
It is possible to use the double comparison of adjectives combined with change-of-state verbs.
adjective-er + and + adjective-er
more adjective + and + more adjective
The days are gettingshorter and shorter.
The word is becomingmore and more ridiculous.
Note
Use the following combination to emphasize the inevitable consequence in degree change of comparative adjectives.
The adjective-er, the adjective-er
The more adjective, the more adjective
The sweeterproducts are,the unhealthierthey are.
The more luxuriousgoods are,the more expensivethey are.
Superlative Degree of Adjectives
The superlative degree demonstrates differences among three or more objects.
1) Superiority
– Most one- and two-syllable adjectives form the comparative degree by adding – est ending.
the adjective + – est
clever – the cleverest,dull – the dullest,large – the largest,weak – the weakest,young – the youngest
– Several two-syllable adjectives and all three- (and more) syllable adjectives form the comparative degree with most.
the most + adjective
the mostexpensive,the mostfamous,the mostimportant,the mostinteresting,the mostprofitable,the mostsomber,the mostuseful
2) Inferiority
the least + adjective
the leastbusy,the leastclever,the leasthot,the leastexpensive,the leastfamous,the leastimportant,the leastinteresting
The least strongcheese will do for this sort of wine.
What arethe least prestigiousjobs?
RULE 10. Substantivized Adjectives
Substantivized Adjectives
the + adjective
1) substantivized adjectives denote a whole class of persons characterized by a specific feature. In most cases such adjectives agree with a plural verb.
the elderly, the handicapped, the lonely, the needy
Olivia's aunt works in school forthe blind.
The richalso cry.
2) substantivized adjectives may as well refer to the whole nation.
the Japanese, the English, the Dutch
TheancientChinesefirst invented paper.
The Welshtry to preserve their language and culture.
3) A number of substantivized adjectives even take the plural ending – s, which let them pass into the category of nouns.
the marines, the moderns, the nobles, the regulars, the Russians
The Conservativesare leading in the polls.
If you want to see the true measure of a man, watch how he treats hisinferiors,not hisequals.
4) substantivized adjectives indicate abstract notions. such adjectives agree with a singular verb.
the future, the past, the present, the plural, the singular, the unknown, the unreal, the variable, the visible
The obviousis fabulous, butthe fabulousis obvious.
You should usethe Future Simplein this sentence.
RULE 11. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives
Syntactic Functions of Adjectives
1. Attribute
We liked thatwarmmeeting.
I hear somepleasantmusic.
Note
There is a particular order for adjectives to describe a noun.
Opinion – Size – Shape – Colour – Pattern – Age
– Origin – Material – Purpose + Noun
a clever young British professor
two nice tiny round black old metal musical boxes
that beautiful swift white new sailing boat
2. Predicate
The meeting waswarm.
Your mother lookssad.
I feelgoodabout the offer.
A predicate adjective follows a linking verb (to be, to seem, to appear, to look, to taste, to smell, to feel, to sound), but it refers to the subject of the sentence.
3. Subject and Object (Substantivized adjectives)
The unemployeddemanded concrete programs of public works.
The youngshould help the old.
RULE 12. Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals
RULE 13. Fractional Numerals. Operations with Numerals
Fractional Numerals
Common fraction
The numerator is a cardinal number; the denominator is an ordinal number.
1/2 – one (a) half
1/3 – one (a) third
1/4 – one (a) quarter
1/5 – one (a) fifth
1/6 – one (a) sixth
If the numenator is more than one, then the denominator is used in plural.
2/3 – two thirds
3/4 – three quarters
5/6 – five sixths
Decimal fraction
Each digit is pronounced separately.
25. 105 – two five point one nought five
0.746 – nought point seven four six
Operations with Numerals
1. Addition
1+2=3 – one plus two is (equals) three; 1, 2 – the addends, 3 – the sum
2. Subtraction
3–2=1 – three minus two is (makes) one; 3 – the minuend, 2 – the subtrahend, 1 – the difference
3. Multiplication
3*2=6 – three multiplied by two/twice three is six; 3 – the multiplicand, 2 – the multiplier, 6 – the product
4. Division
6:2=3 – six divided by two is three; 6 – the dividend, 2 – the divisor, 3 – the quotient
RULE 14. Numerals for Time Expressions
RULE 15. Syntactical Functions of Numerals
Syntactical Functions of Numerals
1. Attribute
Do you know thesevenwonders? This is Andrew'sthirdtrip abroad.
2. Subject
Four of themdidn't join us.
2004, 2008and2012are leap years.
3. Predicative
They werethe first.
It'sfiveo'clock.
4. Object
How many apples has he eaten? He's eatenthree.
Show me thosetwo,please.
RULE 16. Personal Pronouns
RULE 17. Possessive Pronouns
RULE 18. Absolute Form of Possessive Pronouns
RULE 19. Reflexive Pronouns
RULE 20. Intensive Pronouns
Note
Intensive pronouns do not substitute nouns, but intensify their meaning.
You must make that choiceyourself.
Andrew repaired the bikehimself.
We want to go thereourselves.
RULE 21. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point to a certain object or person that can be either near or far in distance or time.
Note
1) Attribute
Thissituation is incredible.
We metthatman on the station.
Would you quit your job underthesecircumstances?
Thoseshoes were so cute!
Thatgirl hassuch avoice!
Suchrules usually take effect.
They work atthe samedepartment.
Why are you asking metheverysamequestions?
It's possible to use demonstrative pronouns before the word one.
These apples are sweeter thanthose ones.
Andrew is an intelligent young man. Yes, he issuch one.
That'sthe same oneI've been looking for!
The demostrative pronoun may be positioned before the adjective that refers to the same noun.
This prettygirl is my sister.
What arethese strangeconclusions?
It'ssuch a wonderfullife.
It's alwaysthe same oldstory.
2) The demonstrative pronoun can also be used in place of nouns.
– Subject
Thismust not continue.
Thosewere the days.
– Object
Will you takethis?
Don't tell themthat.
Andrew can't work withthose.
RULE 22. Classification of Indefinite Pronouns
RULE 23. Some, Any and their Compounds
some
– statements
I needsomeinformation about language courses.
Someof the m istakes were silly.
– offers and suggestions
Would you likesometea?
Shall I bringsomerefreshments?
– requests
Where can I getsomepaper?
Could you give ussomeexamples?
any
– negative sentences
Olivia didn't knowanyof them.
It doesn't makeanysense.
– questions
Have you gotanyquestions?
Didanyof Andrew's friends call him?
– if-clauses
I can lend her my cell phone if there'sanyneed.
If you come acrossanyproblems, please, report us.
– statements
Contactanyof our assistants.
Anyanswer will do.
Somebodyphoned you ten minutes ago.
Would you likesomethingto eat?
Can we takesomethingto make notes on?
You may inviteanyone.
Are they waiting foranybody?
Andrew has not foundanything.
RULE 24. Each, Every, Either
each
– only with countable nouns
– refers to two or more things or persons that should be regarded separately and individually
There were cars parked oneachside of the street.
She kissedeachof her children.
– agrees with a singular verb
There are four apartments in our building.Eachof the apartments has its private entrance.
Eachitem was checked.
– However, if the pronoun each follows the plural subject, it agrees with the plural verb.
Theyeachdo their share of work.
I have two people in the office and weeachhave our own email.
every
– only with countable nouns
– refers either to indefinite number of things/persons or to a group of things/persons considered as a whole.
We could seeeverystar in the night sky.
Everyplayer in the team should cooperate.
– with modifiers such as nearly, almost, practically
Olivia knowsalmost everyneighbour.
Practically everyproblem has practical solutions.
– with time words such as minute, hour, day
There's a buseveryten minutes.
Everymorning Andrew goes jogging in the park.
– makes compound pronouns with – body, – one, – thing
Everybodylikes presents.
They invitedeveryonebut James and Karen.
Everything's done by computer nowadays.
Note
the pronoun everyone differs from the word combination every one.
Everyone is a synonym to everybody and refers only to persons.
Everyoneenjoyed the movie.
Every one is a synonym to each one and refers both to persons and things.
He watched a lot of movies and enjoyedevery one.
– agrees with singular verb
Everycitizen is obliged to observe the constitution.
Each andevery oneof us has their own opinion.
either
– with countable nouns
– refers to two or more things or persons
There are shops ateitherend of the street.
Eitherof these books is useful.
Nick can wear watches oneitherhand.
Note
the pronoun either differs from the adverb either, which is used in negative sentences.
If you don't order the dessert, I won'teither.
Olivia doesn't know his address, Andrew doesn't knoweither.
– agrees with a singular verb
Doeseitherof you speak Chinese?
Haseitherof you two seen Harry?
RULE 25. All, Both
all
– with uncountable nouns and plural countables
– has a generalized meaning
Allchildren need love.
Olivia said good buy to themall.
– the pronoun all agrees with plural verb if it's used with plural countables; if it refers to uncountable nouns, then pronoun all agrees with singular verb.
All the students wereready.
All the milk wasfresh.
All the book wastorn out.
Note
You may use the whole + noun instead of all the + noun
when it goes with a singular countable noun.
The wholebook was torn out.
– If all precedes other noun modifiers (the, this, my, etc), then it can be used either as all + noun, or all of + noun.
Andrew invitedall his (all of his)friends.
It's important to answerall the (all of the)questions.
Note
Use all of before object pronouns, but just all after them.
Andrew invitedall of them (them all).
All of you (You all)have various questions.
– As the subject it agrees with either singular or plural verb, that depends on the context.
Allis well that ends well.
Allhave gone.
– If the subject is a personal pronoun, then all is put between and the verb.
Wealldecided to dinner out the next day.
Theyallskate in winter.
– If there is a linking verb, an auxiliary or modal one, then all goes after the first verb.
We areallhere.
They haveallseen the movie.
You shouldalltake part in this conference.
Note
All is quite often substituted by comounds everybody, everyone, everything.
Allare happy. => Everyone is happy.
Allis ready. => Everything is ready.
both
– with plural countables
– refers to two persons or things
I likeboth(ties).
Both(applicants) are equally experienced.
– agrees with a plural verb
Which project is better?Bothare good.
– Use of between both and another determiner.
Both of theserestaurants are expensive.
Olivia knowsboth of hisbrothers.
– Use both of with a personal object pronoun (him, her, them, etc); use both after a personal subject pronoun (he, she, they).
Both ofthem (They both) are suitable.
It's a game thatboth ofus (we both) can play.
RULE 26. Many/Much, Few/Little, Enough
many/much
– many with countable nouns; much with uncountable nouns
– refer to indefinitely large number of things or persons
Are theremanybooks on the desk?
Will it takemuchtime to get to the centre?
– mostly used in negative sentences and questions
Howmanyfriends have you got?
There isn'tmuchsense in it.
– If many/much are determined by as, so, too, very, use them in affirmative sentences as well.
There weretoomany variants to choose.
They have changed somuchthis year.
– If many/much are the subject or the subject attribute, then they can be used in affirmative sentences too.
Muchof the work has already been completed.
Manystudents attend extra classes.
Note
Words a lot (of), lots (of), a plenty (of) are commonly used in affirmative sentences.
We havea lotto discuss.
There arelots ofeasy ways to follow.
They still haveplenty ofsnow.
few, little
– few with countables; little with uncountables
– refer to indefinitely small number off things or persons; the implied meaning is "not enough"
Nick is sad because he hasfewfriends here.
There waslittleflour, so I couldn't bake a cake.
– The indefinite article a/an with the pronouns few/little changes the implied meaning for positive "enough".
John hasa fewfriends there.
There wasa littleflour, so I could bake a cake.
– It is preferable to use any in negative sentences and questions.
Does John haveanyfriends there?
Andy doesn't haveanyfriends there.
Is thereanyflour at home?
There isnoflour at all.
enough
– with both countable and uncountable nouns
– refers to indefinite but sufficient number of something
You haveenoughtime to write an article.
Andrew told themenough.
RULE 27. One/Ones
one
– refers to an undetermined person in general
Onecannot learn a language in three months.
Oneshould pay taxes.
Note
In the informal language undetermined persons can be as well expressed by the pronouns you or they.
Youmust always try to do your best.
Theysay the weather is changing.
Note
The pronoun one can be used in the possessive form (one's) or in its reflexive form (oneself).
One must learn fromone'smistakes.
One should be careful not to hurtoneself.
– agrees with a singular verb
Oneneverknowswhat may happen.
More thanonevariantisappropriate.
– substitutes the noun to avoid repetition; often used in Which-questions
See those two handsome men? Andrew is the tallerone.
Which dress has Olivia chosen? The redone.
Note
the plural form of the pronoun is also possible.
Andrew bought three apples: a redoneand two yellowones.
Your problems are theonesthat understood by many parents.
RULE 28. Other, Others, Another, the Other, the Others
other
– with countables and uncountables
– The implied meaning "different" is used for indefinite number of things or persons.
Can you bringothershoes, I don't like these ones.
I can't meet you today. Let's do it someothertime.
Let's watchothermovie, I'm scared.
others
– substitutes a plural noun
Othersmay know us better than we know ourselves.
Some tourists stay on the beach,othersexplore the town.
another
– only with singular countable nouns
– The implied meaning is "additional, one more".
Please give meanotherchance.
The example is not clear? Would you likeanother?
the other
– with countable plural or singular nouns
– The implied meaning "remaining, the rest" is for definite number of things or persons.
There are two pens on the desk – one is blue,the otheris red.
You may take one orthe other.You cannot take both.
the others
– substitutes plural nouns
There were three keys in the drawer. One is here, where arethe others?
Don't forgetthe others.
RULE 29. Reciprocal Pronouns
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